NightStudy

Define the terms; DNA, gene, allele and chromosome:

Define the terms; fertilisation, gamete, zygote, embryo, foetus:

Distinguish between the terms dominant and recessive, phenotype and genotype, homozygous and heterozygous:

These terms describe the relationship between your genetic material, from the largest structure to the smallest component:

• Cell: The basic building block of an organism.
• Nucleus: The "control center" inside a cell, which contains the chromosomes.
• Chromosome: A threadlike structure in the nucleus, made of a long molecule of DNA.
• Gene: A specific section of that DNA molecule on a chromosome that provides instructions for one trait (e.g., eye color).
• DNA: The molecule itself, which carries all the genetic instructions.

Fertilisation (LO 3): The fusion of two gametes (a sperm and an egg) to form a zygote.

Body vs. Gamete Cells (LO 5): In humans, normal body cells (like muscle cells) have 46 chromosomes (in 23 pairs). Gametes (sex cells) have 23 chromosomes (half the number).

Importance of Halving Chromosomes (LO 6): It is crucial for gametes to have half the number of chromosomes. If they didn't, the chromosome number would double in every new generation. During fertilisation, the two haploid (1n, or 23 chromosomes) gametes fuse to form a diploid (2n, or 46 chromosomes) zygote with a full, correct set of genetic information.

Process from Fertilisation to Foetus (LO 7):

1. Sperm (23 chromosomes) + Egg (23 chromosomes) ⟶
2. Fertilisation ⟶
3. Zygote (46 chromosomes) ⟶
4. Cell Division (Mitosis) ⟶
5. Embryo (46 chromosomes) ⟶
6. Further Development ⟶ Foetus (46 chromosomes)

Importance of Reproduction (LO 8): Organisms reproduce to ensure the survival of their species. If a species did not reproduce, it would become extinct. For a population number to remain stable, the birth rate must equal the death rate.

Using Punnett Squares (LO 11): A Punnett square is used to predict the genotype and phenotype frequencies of offspring from a cross.

Example: Golden fur (G) is dominant to brown fur (g).

1. Parental Phenotypes: Homozygous Golden fur x Homozygous brown fur.
2. Parental Genotypes: GG x gg.
3. Gametes (from GG): G, G. Gametes (from gg): g, g.
4. Punnett Square:

   	G	G
   g	Gg	Gg
   g	Gg	Gg

5. Phenotype Ratio: 100% Golden fur.
6. Genotype Ratio: 100% Gg (Heterozygous).

Why Ratios Don't Always Match (LO 12): A Punnett square shows probability, not a guaranteed outcome. Each fertilisation is an independent, random event. With small sample sizes (like a single family), the actual ratios can easily differ from the predicted ones due to chance.

Natural Selection: The process where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

The Process (LO 14):

• Overproduction: More offspring are produced than can be supported by resources, leading to competition.
• Variation: Individuals within a population have variations (e.g., different body size, color).
• Differential Survival: Individuals with phenotypes (traits) well-suited to the environment are "selected for" – they survive and reproduce. Those with undesirable traits are "selected against" and are less likely to survive and reproduce.
• Inheritance: Favorable traits are passed on to offspring. Over time, these favorable alleles become more frequent in the population.

Example - Peppered Moths (LO 16):

• Variation: Moths were either light speckled or dark.
• Environment Change: The Industrial Revolution covered trees in soot.
• Differential Survival: On dark, sooty trees, dark moths were camouflaged from predators and survived (selected for). Light moths were easily seen and eaten (selected against).
• Inheritance: The dark moths reproduced, and the dark-colored allele became more frequent in polluted areas.

Importance of Variation (LO 18): Variation is essential for survival. If an environment changes (e.g., drought, new disease), individuals with no variation might all be selected against, leading to extinction. If variation exists, some individuals might have traits that allow them to survive the new conditions, reproduce, and allow the species to continue.

3 Components (LO 3): The circulatory system comprises the blood, heart, and blood vessels.

Blood (LO 4):

• Plasma: The pale yellow liquid (55% of blood) that carries blood cells, hormones, nutrients, etc.
• Red Blood Cells: Transport oxygen to cells and remove carbon dioxide.
• White Blood Cells: Defend the body against pathogens.
• Platelet Cells: Cause clotting to stop bleeding.

Blood Vessels (LO 5):

• Artery: Transports blood AWAY from the heart. Thick, muscular, elastic walls to handle high pressure. (Typically carries oxygenated blood, *except* the pulmonary artery).
• Vein: Carries blood TOWARD the heart. Thinner walls (low pressure). Has valves to prevent backflow. (Typically carries deoxygenated blood, *except* the pulmonary vein).
• Capillary: Tiny, one-cell-thick vessels that connect arteries and veins. This is where gas exchange (O2, CO2) and nutrient/waste exchange occurs with cells.

The Heart (LO 6):

• Chambers: Two Atria (top, receiving) and two Ventricles (bottom, pumping).
• Septum: The wall dividing the left and right sides, preventing mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
• Left Side: Thicker wall (especially left ventricle). Pumps oxygenated blood to the entire body.
• Right Side: Thinner wall. Pumps deoxygenated blood only to the lungs.
• Valves: (Tricuspid, Pulmonary, Mitral, Aortic) Ensure one-way blood flow and prevent backflow when the heart pumps.
• Vessels: Vena Cava (brings deoxygenated blood from body to right atrium), Pulmonary Artery (takes deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to lungs), Pulmonary Vein (brings oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium), Aorta (takes oxygenated blood from left ventricle to body).

Blood Flow Path:
Body ⟶ Vena Cava ⟶ Right Atrium ⟶ Right Ventricle ⟶ Pulmonary Artery ⟶ Lungs (gets O2) ⟶ Pulmonary Vein ⟶ Left Atrium ⟶ Left Ventricle ⟶ Aorta ⟶ Body

• No Nucleus: Allows more space for haemoglobin.
• Haemoglobin: The protein that binds to and transports oxygen.
• Bi-concave Disc Shape: Gives a large surface area to volume ratio, increasing the rate of oxygen absorption.
• Thin Outer Membrane: Allows for a short diffusion distance for oxygen.
• Small & Flexible: Allows them to squeeze through narrow capillaries.

Role (LO 8): The respiratory system is for breathing (ventilation) and gas exchange.

• Breathing: The mechanical action of taking in air rich in O2 (inhalation) and removing air rich in CO2 (exhalation), using muscles like the diaphragm.
• Gas Exchange: The process of swapping O2 and CO2 between the alveoli and the bloodstream.

Gas Exchange at Alveoli (LO 10):

1. Deoxygenated blood (high in CO2) arrives at the alveoli via a capillary.
2. CO2 diffuses from the blood *into* the air in the alveoli (to be exhaled).
3. O2 from inhaled air diffuses from the alveoli *into* the blood.
4. Oxygenated blood (low in CO2) leaves the capillary, transported by red blood cells to the body.

Adaptations of Alveoli (LO 11):

• Millions of Alveoli: Provides a huge total surface area.
• Round Shape: Increases surface area.
• Moist Lining: Allows oxygen to dissolve first, speeding up diffusion.
• Thin Membranes (One-cell thick): Creates a very short diffusion distance for gases.
• Capillary Network: A dense network of capillaries surrounds each alveolus, maintaining a steep concentration gradient for diffusion.

Purpose (LO 13): To gain nutrients from food to carry out life processes (MRSGREN).

4 Stages (LO 16):

1. Ingestion: Taking food into the mouth.
2. Digestion: Breaking down LARGE, INSOLUBLE nutrients into SMALL, SOLUBLE nutrients that can be absorbed.
3. Absorption: Taking digested food into the bloodstream.
4. Egestion: Removing undigested food (faeces).

Path Through the Body:

• Mouth: Ingestion. Mechanical digestion (chewing) and Chemical digestion (saliva contains amylase, which breaks down carbohydrates).
• Oesophagus: Transports food bolus to the stomach via peristalsis (wave-like muscle contractions).
• Stomach: Mechanical digestion (churning). Chemical digestion (gastric fluid contains Hydrochloric Acid to kill pathogens and create an acidic pH, and Pepsin, an enzyme that breaks down proteins). Mucus protects the stomach wall.
• Small Intestine: Final chemical digestion of lipids, carbs, and proteins by enzymes. This is where Absorption occurs. Nutrients (amino acids, glucose, fatty acids) are absorbed into the blood. It is lined with villi and microvilli to create a massive surface area for absorption.
• Large Intestine: Absorption of water and ions back into the body.
• Rectum & Anus: Egestion. Stores faeces (rectum) and expels them (anus).

Digestion: The process of breaking down LARGE, INSOLUBLE nutrients into SMALL, SOLUBLE nutrients.

• Mechanical Digestion: The physical action of breaking food into smaller pieces. This increases the surface area for enzymes to work on.
  • Examples: Chewing (teeth), churning (stomach).
• Chemical Digestion: The chemical breaking down of large, insoluble food particles into small, soluble particles using enzymes.
  • Examples: Amylase in saliva (breaks down carbs), Pepsin in the stomach (breaks down proteins).

Bulldogs and King Charles Spaniels have been selectively bred from a small group of original dogs (low variation). Through selective breeding, they have been inbred with related dogs to achieve homozygous (purebred) traits.

When breeding related dogs, they are more likely to carry the same recessive genetic disorders, so they are more likely to have pups with genetic disorders.

• Bulldogs: Selected for a flat face, which gives them breathing problems. This means they can't exercise, may become obese, overheat, and have heart/lung problems, leading to a shortened life.
• King Charles Spaniels: Selected for a small face and skull. As they grow, their brain can become too large for their skull, leading to pain and suffering.

Physical Change: No new substances are formed. The change is usually reversible. It is a change in the physical state.

• Example: Melting ice (solid H₂O to liquid H₂O). It's still H₂O.
• Example: Dissolving salt in water.

Chemical Change: A new substance is formed. A change occurs at the molecular level (bonds are broken and new bonds are formed). This is usually irreversible.

• Signs: Color change, temperature change (gets hot or cold), gas given off (fizzing), a solid (precipitate) forms.
• Example: Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide.

Arrangement (LO 2): Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number (number of protons). Metals are on the left, non-metals on the right.

Valence Electrons & Groups (LO 3):

• Groups (columns): Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons (outer shell electrons). This is why they have similar chemical properties.
• Group 1 = 1 valence electron
• Group 2 = 2 valence electrons
• Group 13 = 3 valence electrons
• Group 17 = 7 valence electrons
• Group 18 = 8 valence electrons (a full outer shell)

Electron Shells & Periods (LO 3):

• Periods (rows): The period number tells you how many electron shells an atom has.
• Period 2 elements (e.g., Li, C, O) have 2 electron shells.
• Period 3 elements (e.g., Na, Mg, S) have 3 electron shells.

Common Elements (LO 4): H (Hydrogen), He (Helium), Li (Lithium), Be (Beryllium), B (Boron), C (Carbon), N (Nitrogen), O (Oxygen), F (Fluorine), Ne (Neon), Na (Sodium), Mg (Magnesium), Al (Aluminium), Si (Silicon), P (Phosphorus), S (Sulfur), Cl (Chlorine), Ar (Argon), K (Potassium), Ca (Calcium).

Others: Ag (Silver), Au (Gold), Ba (Barium), Br (Bromine), Cu (Copper), Fe (Iron), Zn (Zinc), Pb (Lead).

Subatomic Particles (LO 5): Given the Mass Number and Atomic Number:

• Number of Protons = Atomic Number
• Number of Electrons = Atomic Number (in a neutral atom)
• Number of Neutrons = Mass Number - Atomic Number

Example: Lithium (Li) has Atomic Number 3 and Mass Number 7.

• Protons = 3
• Electrons = 3
• Neutrons = 7 - 3 = 4

Atoms are neutral overall because they have the same number of positive protons and negative electrons. The +1 charge of each proton is canceled out by the -1 charge of each electron.

Ionic Bonding (LO 9, 10):

• Occurs between a Metal (left side of periodic table) and a Non-Metal (right side).
• The metal atom loses its valence electron(s) to get a full outer shell, forming a positive ion (cation).
• The non-metal atom gains electron(s) to get a full outer shell, forming a negative ion (anion).
• The bond is the strong electrostatic force of attraction between these two oppositely charged ions.

Covalent Bonding (LO 9, 10):

• Occurs between two or more Non-Metal elements.
• Atoms cannot lose/gain electrons, so they share pairs of valence electrons.
• By sharing, each atom achieves a full valence shell. This shared pair of electrons is the covalent bond.

Ion (LO 13): An atom (or group of atoms) that has gained or lost electrons to achieve a full outer shell and become stable. It has an overall positive or negative charge.

Forming Ions (LO 14):

• Metals (Groups 1, 2, 13) are on the left side. They LOSE their valence electrons to get a full outer shell.
  • Example: Magnesium (Mg), Group 2, has 2 valence electrons. It loses 2 electrons to become a Magnesium ion (Mg²⁺). It now has 12 protons (+12) but only 10 electrons (-10), for an overall charge of +2.
• Non-Metals (Groups 15, 16, 17) are on the right side. They GAIN electrons to get a full outer shell.
  • Example: Oxygen (O), Group 16, has 6 valence electrons. It gains 2 electrons to become an Oxide ion (O²⁻). It now has 8 protons (+8) but 10 electrons (-10), for an overall charge of -2.

Note: When an atom becomes an ion, only the number of electrons changes. The number of protons and neutrons stays the same.

Common Acids (Contain H⁺ ions):

• HCl - Hydrochloric acid
• HNO₃ - Nitric acid
• H₂SO₄ - Sulfuric acid
• CH₃COOH - Ethanoic acid

Common Bases (Produce OH⁻ ions or accept H⁺):

• NaOH - Sodium hydroxide
• CaCO₃ - Calcium carbonate
• NH₃ - Ammonia
• NaHCO₃ - Sodium hydrogen carbonate

Concentration (LO 3): The measure of the amount of solute dissolved in a given volume of solvent, measured in grams per Litre (g/L or gL⁻¹).

Describing Concentration (LO 4): A concentrated solution has more solute particles in a given volume. A dilute solution has fewer solute particles in the same volume. Adding water (solvent) to a solution makes it more dilute, which moves its pH closer to 7 (acids become less acidic, bases become less basic).

Calculating Concentration (LO 5):

c = m / V

• c = concentration (g/L)
• m = mass of solute (g)
• V = volume of solvent (L)

Important: Mass MUST be in grams (g) and Volume MUST be in Litres (L). (1000 mL = 1 L; 1 kg = 1000 g).

Comparing Concentration (LO 6): To compare, calculate the concentration (c = m/V) for each solution. The one with the highest value (in g/L) is the most concentrated.

The pH scale is a measure of the concentration of Hydrogen ions [H⁺].

Litmus Paper (LO 7): Only tells you if a substance is acidic, basic, or neutral. You must use *both* red and blue litmus paper.

• Acid: Stays Red, Turns Red (Blue turns Red).
• Neutral: Stays Red, Stays Blue (No change).
• Base: Turns Blue, Stays Blue (Red turns Blue).

Universal Indicator (LO 8): Changes color to show the specific pH value (the strength).

• Acid: Red / Orange / Yellow
• Neutral: Green
• Base: Blue / Purple

pH Scale (LO 9): pH stands for 'power of hydrogen'. It represents the concentration of H⁺ ions. The lower the pH, the higher the concentration of H⁺ ions.

• pH 1-6: Acids
• pH 7: Neutral (equal [H⁺] and [OH⁻])
• pH 8-14: Bases

Acids + Metals (LO 13): When an acid reacts with a metal, they produce a metal salt and hydrogen gas (H₂).

Metal + Acid → Metal Salt + Hydrogen

Gas Tests (LO 15):

• Hydrogen Gas (H₂): Use the "Pop Test". Collect the gas and put a burning splint near it. If hydrogen is present, it will make a "squeaky pop" sound.
• Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Use the "Limewater Test". Bubble the gas through limewater (calcium hydroxide solution). If carbon dioxide is present, the limewater will turn from clear to milky/cloudy.

General Word Equations (A&B LO 16):

• Acid + Base → Metal Salt + Water
• Metal + Acid → Metal Salt + Hydrogen Gas (MASH)
• Acid + Metal Carbonate → Metal Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide

Naming Salts (A&B LO 18): The salt name comes from the metal (from the base/metal/carbonate) and the acid.

• Hydrochloric acid → forms -chloride salts
• Sulfuric acid → forms -sulfate salts
• Nitric acid → forms -nitrate salts

Writing Ionic Formula (Atomic Struc LO 16):

1. Write the ions with their charges (e.g., Ba²⁺ and Cl⁻).
2. "Drop and Swap" the numbers (don't include the charge sign). The 2 from Ba goes to Cl, the 1 from Cl goes to Ba.
3. Result: Ba₁Cl₂, which simplifies to BaCl₂.
4. If charges are the same (e.g., Ca²⁺ and O²⁻), they cancel out. Result: CaO.

Writing Symbol Equations (Atomic Struc 17, A&B 19):

1. Write the correct formula for all reactants and products.
2. Remember diatomic elements: H₂, N₂, O₂, F₂, Cl₂.
3. Example: Mg + Cl₂ → MgCl₂
4. Example: H₂SO₄ + 2NaOH → Na₂SO₄ + 2H₂O (Balancing is required).

Speed (LO 2): A measure of how far an object travels in a period of time (unit: m/s or ms⁻¹).

Interpreting Graphs (LO 7, 8): On a distance-time graph:

• A horizontal line (flat) means the object is stationary (zero speed).
• A straight, sloped line means the object is moving at a constant speed.
• A steeper slope means a faster constant speed.
• A curving line means the speed is changing (accelerating or decelerating).

Calculating Speed from Graph (LO 9): The gradient (slope) of a distance-time graph is the speed.

Speed = Gradient = Rise / Run = Change in Distance / Change in Time

Common Forces (LO 12):

• Weight: Force of gravity pulling an object's mass down.
• Support (or Normal/Reaction): Upward force from a surface, preventing an object from falling through.
• Thrust: Forward force from an engine or push.
• Friction/Drag/Air Resistance: Forces that oppose motion.
• Tension: Pulling force in a rope or string.
• Lift: Upward force (e.g., on a plane's wings).
• Buoyancy: Upward force from a liquid.

Force Diagrams (LO 16): Arrows are used to represent forces. The arrow's direction shows the force's direction, and its length can represent its size. Forces are drawn acting from the center of the object.

Resultant (Net) Force (LO 18): The overall force on an object when all forces are combined.

• If forces are balanced (e.g., 10N Left and 10N Right), the net force is zero (0 N). The object's motion will not change (it stays still or moves at a constant speed).
• If forces are unbalanced (e.g., 10N Left and 30N Right), the net force is 20 N to the right. The object will accelerate.

Net Force and Acceleration (LO 19):

• An unbalanced (net) force causes acceleration.
• If the net force is in the same direction as the object's motion, it speeds up (accelerates).
• If the net force is in the opposite direction to the object's motion, it slows down (decelerates).

Speed (v) (LO 1, 2, 3): v = d / t

• v = speed (m/s)
• d = distance (m)
• t = time (s)

Acceleration (a) (LO 1, 4, 5): The rate of change of speed (unit: m/s²). "5 m/s²" means the object's speed increases by 5 m/s every second.

a = Δv / t (where Δv = change in speed, or vf - vi)

• a = acceleration (m/s²)
• Δv = change in speed (m/s)
• t = time (s)

Force (F) (LO 15): F_net = m × a

• F_net = Net Force (N - Newtons)
• m = mass (kg)
• a = acceleration (m/s²)

Mass vs. Weight (LO 24):

• Mass (m): The amount of "stuff" (particles) in an object. Measured in kilograms (kg). Mass is constant everywhere (on Earth, on the Moon, in space).
• Weight (Fw): The force of gravity acting on an object's mass. Measured in Newtons (N). Weight changes depending on the strength of gravity.

Calculating Weight (LO 25): F_w = m × g

• F_w = Weight Force (N)
• m = mass (kg)
• g = gravitational acceleration (on Earth, g = 10 N/kg or 10 m/s²)

Example: A 4.5 kg cat has a weight on Earth of 4.5 kg × 10 N/kg = 45 N.

Electric Current (I) (LO 3): The rate of flow of electrical charge (electrons). Measured in Amperes (A) or "Amps".

Voltage (V) (LO 10): The electrical potential energy per unit charge. A measure of the "push" given to the electrons by a battery. Measured in Volts (V).

Resistance (R) (LO 13): The measure of how much a material reduces or "resists" the flow of current. Measured in Ohms (Ω).

Two things are required to make an electric current flow:

1. Something to transfer the energy to the electrons, such as a battery or power pack (a voltage source).
2. A complete, conducting path for the electrons to flow through (i.e., an electric circuit). A break in the circuit (like an open switch) will stop the current.

Ohm's Law: V = I × R

• V = Voltage (Volts)
• I = Current (Amps)
• R = Resistance (Ohms)

You can rearrange this to find any value:

• I = V / R
• R = V / I

Example: A 6Ω bulb is connected to a 12V battery. What is the current?

I = V / R ⟶ I = 12V / 6Ω ⟶ I = 2A

Circuit Types (LO 17):

• Series: One single loop for the current to flow.
• Parallel: More than one branch or loop for the current to split between.

Rules for Series (LO 18, 20):

• Current (I) is the SAME at any point in the circuit. (I_total = I₁ = I₂)
• Voltage (V) is SHARED between components. (V_total = V₁ + V₂)

Rules for Parallel Circuits (LO 18, 20):

• Current (I) is SPLIT between the branches. (I_total = I₁ + I₂)
• Voltage (V) is the SAME across each branch. (V_total = V₁ = V₂)

Advantages&Disadvantages (LO 19):

• Series: Disadvantage: If one component (e.g., bulb) breaks, the whole circuit stops working.
• Parallel: Advantage: If one component breaks, the other branches keep working. Bulbs are also brighter as they each get the full supply voltage.

Switches: Used to complete (close) or break (open) a circuit, allowing current to flow or stopping it.

Fuses: A safety device with a thin piece of wire. If the current gets too high, the wire melts, which breaks the circuit and stops the flow. This is a one-time use device and must be replaced.

Circuit Breakers: An automatic switch. If the current becomes too large, an electromagnet or bimetallic strip triggers the switch, breaking the circuit. It can be reset and used again.

• September 4, 2010 (4:35 AM): The 7.1 magnitude Darfield (Canterbury) earthquake hits.
• February 22, 2011 (12:51 PM): The 6.2 magnitude Christchurch earthquake hits, causing 185 deaths.
• February 12-16, 2023: Cyclone Gabrielle causes catastrophic damage in Tairāwhiti and Hawke's Bay.
• February 14, 2023: A National State of Emergency is declared.

The "Warning" Quake (Sept 2010):

• Event: 7.1 magnitude at 4:35 AM.
• Impact: Lucky timing (empty streets) and location (further from CBD) resulted in 0 direct fatalities, despite significant damage.

The "Fatal" Quake (Feb 2011):

• Event: 6.2 magnitude, but far more destructive.
• Why it was worse:
  • Proximity: Epicentre was almost directly under the city.
  • Depth: Extremely shallow (5km deep), causing intense ground shaking.
  • Timing: Struck at 12:51 PM on a busy Tuesday.
• Human Cost: 185 people killed. 115 of these deaths were in the CTV Building collapse, which was later found to have significant design flaws.
• Geological Impact: Massive, widespread liquefaction (see concepts) buried suburbs in silt, destroyed infrastructure, and led to the creation of the Residential Red Zone.
• Response: National State of Emergency declared; CERA (Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority) created.

Event: The costliest weather event in NZ history (approx. $14.5 billion) and deadliest this century (11 fatalities).

The "Hybrid Disaster": A combination of a natural hazard (cyclone) and human factors (land use).

The "Slash" Controversy:

• In Tairāwhiti, hillsides had been clear-felled for pine plantations.
• Rain washed millions of tonnes of forestry debris ("slash") down the hills.
• This debris "acted like a battering ram," destroying everything, making flooding infinitely worse, and contributing to the deaths.

Response: National State of Emergency declared. Government launched a Ministerial Inquiry into forestry practices.

Liquefaction:

• What it is: A process where intense shaking causes water-saturated soil (like in Christchurch) to temporarily behave like a liquid.
• Impact: The ground loses its ability to support buildings, causing them to sink or tilt. Water and silt erupt onto the surface.

Slash (Woody Debris):

• What it is: Waste material (logs, stumps, branches) left on hillsides after commercial forestry harvesting.
• Impact: Heavy rain washes this debris into rivers, where it clogs waterways, destroys bridges, and acts as a "tsunami of wood."

National State of Emergency:

• What it is: The highest legal response level in NZ, granting government extraordinary powers to coordinate a response.
• Used only 3 times:
  1. Feb 2011 Christchurch Earthquake
  2. March 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic
  3. Feb 2023 Cyclone Gabrielle

Branch 1: The Event

• 12:51 PM, Tuesday Feb 22, 2011
• 6.2 Magnitude, 5km deep (shallow)
• Epicentre under Lyttelton

Branch 2: Human Cost

• 185 deaths
• CTV Building collapse (115 deaths)
• Thousands injured

Branch 3: Geological Impact

• Intense vertical shaking
• Widespread liquefaction (400,000 tonnes of silt)
• 80% of water/sewerage systems destroyed

Branch 4: National Response

• National State of Emergency
• CERA (Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority)
• "Residential Red Zone" (land abandoned)

• Feb 6, 1840: Te Tiriti o Waitangi (The Treaty of Waitangi) is first signed.
• 1863: The NZ Settlements Act is passed (legal basis for Raupatu/confiscation).
• 1865: The Native Lands Act establishes the Native Land Court to break up communal land ownership.
• 1877: Wi Parata v Bishop of Wellington case. Treaty declared "a simple nullity."
• 1975: The Treaty of Waitangi Act establishes the Waitangi Tribunal (for post-1975 breaches).
• 1985: A crucial amendment gives the Tribunal retrospective power to investigate breaches back to 1840.
• 1995: The Waikato-Tainui Settlement (first major historical settlement).
• 1998: The Ngāi Tahu Settlement.

Sovereignty vs. Kāwanatanga (Article 1):

• The Conflict: The English text says Māori cede "Sovereignty" (supreme power). The Māori text (Te Tiriti) says they give "Kāwanatanga" (governance).
• Interpretation: Māori believed they were getting a governor to manage settlers, not giving away their own authority.

Tino Rangatiratanga (Article 2):

• What it is: The Māori text guarantees "te tino rangatiratanga" (unqualified chieftainship, or absolute authority) over their lands, villages, and "taonga".
• The Conflict: This directly contradicts the Crown's belief it gained "Sovereignty" in Article 1.

Taonga (Treasures):

• What it is: A key word in Article 2.
• Modern Interpretation: Expanded from physical property to include intangible treasures the Crown must protect, like Te Reo Māori (the language) and mātauranga Māori (knowledge).

Raupatu (Confiscation):

• What it is: The act of confiscating land, specifically referring to the mass confiscations by the Crown in the 1860s (e.g., in Waikato) under the NZ Settlements Act 1863.

Relativity Clause:

• What it is: A "top-up" mechanism in the 1995 Waikato-Tainui and 1998 Ngāi Tahu settlements.
• How it works: Guarantees their $170m settlements maintain their "relative value." It was triggered when total Crown settlements passed $1 billion, ensuring the first iwi to settle weren't disadvantaged.

Branch 1: By Force (Raupatu)

• The Law: NZ Settlements Act 1863.
• The "Justification": To punish iwi "in rebellion" (e.g., Kīngitanga).
• The Reality: A pretext to seize land for military settlers.
• The Impact: 3.4 million acres taken. The Waitangi Tribunal later found this was an "unjust" act by the Crown.

Branch 2: By "Law" (Native Land Court)

• The Law: Native Lands Act 1865.
• The "Justification": To convert communal Māori land into individual British-style titles.
• The Reality: To "detribalise" Māori and destroy their communal social structure, making land sales easy.
• The Impact: Known as "the land-taking court." It forced iwi to sell land just to pay for the massive survey and legal fees required to prove ownership.

• c. 1840s – 1870s: The New Zealand Wars.
• 1858: The Kīngitanga (Māori King Movement) is established.
• 1863: The NZ Settlements Act is passed (tool for raupatu).
• July 1863: The Crown invasion of the Waikato begins, aimed at crushing the Kīngitanga.
• 1864: The Battle of Orakau, where Rewi Maniapoto declared "Ka whawhai tonu mātou, Ake, ake, ake!" (We will fight on forever!).
• 1995: The Waikato-Tainui Settlement provides the first formal Crown Apology for the 1863 invasion.

Central Cause: The wars were fought over the central conflict of the Treaty: Crown sovereignty versus Māori tino rangatiratanga, and the resulting settler hunger for land.

The Kīngitanga:

• A pan-tribal movement to unify Māori, halt land sales, and assert Māori self-governance.
• The Crown saw this as "rebellion."

The Waikato War (1863-64):

• The defining conflict, ordered by Governor George Grey as a pre-emptive invasion to crush the Kīngitanga.
• The Crown used the NZ Settlements Act 1863 as its legal justification.

The Consequence (Raupatu):

• After defeating the Kīngitanga, the Crown confiscated 1.2 million acres of Waikato-Tainui's land.
• This shattered the Tainui economy and social structure for generations.

The Legacy (Redress):

• The Waitangi Tribunal found Tainui had not "rebelled" but had been forced into a defensive war by an "unjust" Crown invasion.
• This led directly to the 1995 Waikato-Tainui Settlement and the Crown's apology.

New Zealand Wars:

• A series of conflicts from the 1840s to 1870s between the Crown (and allies) and Māori iwi, fundamentally over land and authority.

Kīngitanga (Māori King Movement):

• A pan-tribal movement (est. 1858) to unite Māori, halt land sales, and create a Māori system of governance. The Crown viewed it as a "rebellious" challenge.

NZ Settlements Act 1863:

• The law that "legalized" raupatu. It gave the Crown power to confiscate land from any iwi "engaged in open rebellion."

Kūpapa:

• A term for Māori who allied with, or fought on the side of, the Crown during the NZ Wars. Even kūpapa often had their land confiscated "by mistake."

• Assessment Type: Short-answer questions (vocabulary, surface and syntactic accuracy).
• Marks: 24
• Suggested Time: 20 minutes

• Assessment Type: Mixed short- and longer-answer questions (unstudied war poem).
• Marks: 24
• Suggested Time: 40 minutes

• Assessment Type: Write one analytical essay (choice of three prompts).
• Marks: 24
• Suggested Time: 60 minutes

This section will test vocabulary from all units this year.

The exam will focus on the 24 asterisked terms from your study document, with eight of these terms being assessed.

You will be assessed on your understanding of written English accuracy.

This includes answering questions about key grammatical terms and, crucially, finding and correcting grammatical errors in a piece of writing.

• Focus on learning the terms you are not confident with.
• Use your More English Basics homework book to practise.
• Use the English Department's Language Knowledge Website.
• Make flashcards for active retrieval.
• Copy out definitions and rewrite them from memory.
• Quiz yourself or have a friend/family member quiz you.

Comprehension (1 mark):

• Which of the following best describes the tone of stanza one?
• Why does the poet describe the soldiers as "....." in line 11?

Short-answer (2 marks):

• Name the figurative language feature in lines 7-8. What is being compared?
• Explain the effect of the alliteration in stanza 2.

Long-answer (3 marks):

• In what way is the poet's tone in the final stanza an example of idealism? Make reference to at least TWO points.

• Familiarise yourself with the terms on the Poetry Knowledge Organiser.
• Refamiliarise yourself with the 'How To Read a Poem' document.
• Make flashcards of poetry terms and definitions.
• Re-read poems in your War Poetry booklet, practising identification and interpretation.
• Complete practice unfamiliar text tasks from your teacher.

You will write one analytical essay from a choice of three prompts.

Structure:

1. Introduction: Address the essay prompt directly.
2. Analytical Paragraphs (x2): Include a clear topic sentence, evidence (quotations), and a concluding sentence.
3. Conclusion: Summarise your discussion and re-engage with the prompt.

Prompts will begin "Discuss how ...." and focus on a mix of characters, events, themes, or settings.

• Choose and memorise 4-6 high-impact quotations related to key characters, events, and themes.
• Familiarise yourself with the analytical paragraph structure.
• Make flashcards for key elements (theme, character, setting).
• Remind yourself of the major themes studied in the novel.
• Discuss important ideas with friends or classmates.